The Verification Principle Essay Example for Free

The curb t severallying Es entirelyegeThroughout the years, science has been a very productive practice. From explaining why and how things happen to sending people to the moon. Not only do we mark its benefits every day, however also new discoveries be being made constantly. Science has proven its succeeder. By using the scientific method and critical thinking, a wide range of things have been discovered. One finishnot say the same for ism. M each of the questions that were asked by the very first philosophers be still being contemplated and debated over today. both(prenominal) philosophers thought that in order to make philosophy as successful as science that they would gather up to adopt a method such as the scientific method. Thus, the verification normal came to be. The philosophers with this idea that philosophy take aways to be successful, like science, were the logical positivists. These philosophers had a scientific envy, wanting to make philosophy more scientific. Their method to become more scientific was to create the Verification precept. It states that A statement is cognitively signifi groundworkt if and only if it is either analytic or in principle by trial and error verify.They thought that if roughlything cannot be verified analytically or by experiment, then(prenominal) there is no need to debate about it. To project this principle, one must understand some of the key terms and concepts in it. Something can be draw as cognitively significant if it can be arrange to be uncoiled or fictional. Therefore, a statement must have a truth-value. According to the Verification Principle, in order to find if something is true or false, it must be analytic or in principle by trial and error verified. Something is analytic if it can be found by mathematical means or by using logic.Twenty divided by deuce equals twenty-two is an example of an analytical statement. Whether the statement that twenty divided by two equals twen ty-two is correct, or not, by using mathematical reasoning, the answer can be found to be true or false. Another example of an analytical statement would be as follows A guitar is a musical instrument, and musical instruments sound beautiful. Thus, a guitar sounds beautiful. Since the argument flows in a logical pattern, the statement is verbalize to be analytic, and therefore, also cognitively meaningful.The last part of the Verification Principle states that a cognitively meaningful statement must be in principle empirically verified. For something to be in principle empirically verified, it must be able to be, in theory, proven through an experiment. For instance, the statement, Hell is located in the core of Earth, can be empirically verified. Although it has not yet been proven or disproven, theoretically it could be. Although challenging, I am sure, but eventually we could somehow get a person, or group of people, to dig deep enough and then see if our core is in fact Hell.A new and revised Verification Principle would be as follows A statement can be found to be true or false if and only if it can be found using mathematical reasoning, logic, or if it can be found in principle experimentally. If a statement is not found to have a truth-value using any of these methods, then it is said to be cognitively meaningless, and consequently, does not need to be discussed. The statement that God exists would be considered cognitively meaningless. It cannot be proven mathematically, or logically, that God exists. Nor can it be proven with any lineament of experiment.Since it is cognitively meaningless, there is no need to debate Gods existence. According to the Verification Principle, numerous philosophical concepts and questions no longer need to be discussed. One relevant subject, that would be deemed cognitively meaningless, is Ethics. some(prenominal) if not all statements, or questions, in Ethics cannot be visitd analytically or empirically verified. As such, Ethics should no longer be discussed. Whether a person murdering in the name of nationalism or defending ones own life is good, is pointless to debate because it has no truth-value.A mathematician cannot figure out using a formula whether these acts of murder are good. Neither can a person use logic to find the answer. It would be absurd to think that a person could determine the answer to the question using an experimental method. Ethics in general, becomes pointless to discuss. Many have objected to the Verification Principle since many things, are considered cognitively meaningless, but do require attention and discussion. Axiology, which asks the question What are determine, is completely cognitively meaningless under the principle. Some would say that this could not be correct since values are imperative.Values create a sense of character, personality, and meaning. Surely, we should not just throw out the undivided study of what our values are because the answer to the questions cannot be found analytically or by experiment. David Hume brings up a valid point that contradicts the Verification Principle, stating that the principle itself is self-contradicting. Hume points out that science relies on principles that cannot pass the Verification Principle. By the logical positivists trying to mirror the success of science, they created a principle that even the principles of science do not pass.One such principle is the Principle of Induction. This principle, in crude terms, states that the future will fit the past. According to the Verification Principle, this statement is cognitively meaningless. Once again, neither mathematics nor logic can be used to determine a truth-value to this statement. It also cannot be proven in principle by experiment. Since we are always in the present or looking back into the past, we cannot say that the future will check the past, but science bases its rules, theories, and discoveries on this principle.Another sc ientific principle that does not pass the Verification Principle is the Principle of Universal Causation. It states, also crudely, that every event has a cause. Since there is no way to experimentally determine that every event that has ever happened, or will happen, has a cause, it is cognitively meaningless. Hence, if the Verification Principle is correct, then science itself is cognitively meaningless and does not need to be debated nor discussed. In my opinion, the Verification Principle is not a valid basis on which to determine whether a subject should be discussed or not.Many things, such as ethics, need to be discussed. If we chose to follow the guidelines of the principle, there would be no need to discuss ethics. This would in turn eventually cause people to immobilise what ethics or an ethical judgment is. There would be no sense of what is good or bad only who has the big gun. Society would be reduced to animals, though we are already close to that point. By people dis cussing ethics, and ethical judgments, though we may never reach a conclusion or agreement on some aspects of the subject, we choose to not forget about what is just and that there is a difference between function and wrong.Though philosophy may not have all too much(prenominal) to show for all of its work, at least if compared to science, then at the very least it causes people to think for themselves and to not forget about things which are substantial to human nature. Such things as religion, ethics, values, and creativity are all important to us as humans. If using the Verification Principle, all such things would be cognitively meaningless. In a way, it is the things that are cognitively meaningless that are more important than the cognitively meaningful. They are what define us and not only set us apart from all other species, but also from each other. In conclusion, the Verification Principle was a way for some philosophers to make philosophy successful much like science. The principle states that A statement is cognitively meaningful if and only if it is either analytical or in principle empirically verified. Many things in philosophy, such as Ethics, in this sense are cognitively meaningless and should not be discussed. David Hume pointed out that science is based on principles that do not pass the Verification Principle and is therefore cognitively meaningless. To be fair, the Verification Principle was a sorry attempt to try to put a value on the success of philosophy. The greatness of philosophy though, is that it is not based solely on numbers, logic, and experiments, but also on critical thinking. It is that aspect of philosophy that sets domain apart from the rest of the animals on Earth. Although some of the questions of philosophy may never be solved, the true success of philosophy is that it causes people to think and to search for answers instead of accepting what they have always known as truth.

Rheumatoid Arthritis Essay Example for Free

Rheumatoid Arthritis EssayRheumatoid arthritis (RA) be retentives to a class of autoimmune disorders that trend chronic conjugationt red as well as punk of the winds surrounding the enunciates (Goronzy Weyand, 2001, p. 55). early(a) variety meat in the organic structure ar similarly affected when the cells fail to differentiate self from non-self. The tribulation of the immune cells to differentiate the bodys own cells from the foreign or intruding cells leads to autoimmunity where the immune cells outpouring the bodys own cells. Usually, the immune system is organized in a way that it seeks and destroys the bodys invaders particular the pathogens. The antibodies in patients with autoimmune diseases always tar aim the bodys own tissues and make out sacking. The effects offspringing from the self-attack spreads to multiple body organs and this condition is popularly referred to as rheumatic arthritis (Arthritis Foundation, 2010). Epidemiology Rheumatoid arthritis is peradventure the comm wholenessst of all rheumatoid diseases and it affects about 1. 3 million people in the U. S alone (Arthritis Foundation, 2010). Women are three times as riskier than men to be afflicted by the disease although the disease is common among all races in equal magnitude (Clair, Pisetsky, Haynes, 2001, p. 1).The numbers of women suffering from rheumatoid arthritis are currently on the development despite the recorded decline in numbers a few decades ago. The use of prophylactic device pills containing insufficient estrogen as birth dominance measures has been blamed for the reduced immunity among women thus the change magnitude cases of RA (Clair, Pisetsky, Haynes, 2001, p. 5). Environmental actors such as cigarette smoking are overly to blame for the increase in disease cases among women. Although the general smoking rates take over declined in the United States, the rates of women smokers, each considered, have not declined though.While genetic fact ors such as the role of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) DRB1 alleles have for long been fishyed to pee aberrations in proteins in immune cells, this has not been proved yet (Clair, Pisetsky, Haynes, 2001, p. 5). The risk among women has also been linked to the deficiency of vitamin D. Rheumatoid arthritis usually afflicts individuals of a wide range of ages although it is commonly begins after one has attained the age of 40 although it is high-minded beyond the age of 60 (Silman Pearson, 2002, p. 267). It has also been shown that rheumatoid arthritis smoke bechance in multiple members of the same family.This observation suggests the propensity that the disease is inheritable (Goronzy Weyand, 2001, p. 55). A peculiar(prenominal) gene is suspected to be the underlying reason for the strange behavior of the immune cells attacking the bodys own cells. Pathophysiology and Pathogenesis Arthritis refers to some bring in of inflammation that occurs at the joints. Joints are points w here two bones join each other and are critical for locomotion functioning. Rheumatoid arthritis results to the inflammation of the joint which is accompanied with grim pain, swelling, redness and stiffness in the joints.Rheumatoid arthritis bed also lead to severe inflammation in tissues surrounding the joints such as ligaments, tendons and muscles. Chronic inflammation in some patients with rheumatoid arthritis can result into complete oddment of the bones, cartilage and ligaments thus leading to serious joint deformities. Usually, destruction of the joints can occur in early stages if development but gets worse as one advances in age (Arthritis Foundation, 2010). The primary(prenominal) cause of RA is not well known although bacteria, viruses and fungi have for long been in the suspect list without any of the biological agents been proved.As for this reason, intensive research efforts are being invested in the appellative of the causal agents for RA. Genetic causes and envi ronmental infectious agents have been associated with the deranged immune system which goes out of control and attacks the bodys own cells (Goronzy Weyand, 2001, p. 55). The deranged immune system results into long joint and organ inflammation which leads to rheumatoid arthritis. The common organs affected allow in the eyes and the lungs. Specifically, the activation of lymphocytes marks the start of the process of inflammation.In the inflamed cells, a number of chemical messengers are expressed including the interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) (Gupta Fomberstein, 2002, p. 3). Symptoms of Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis experience episodic inflammatory symptoms depending on the extent of individual tissue inflammation. The disease is overly active following extensive tissue inflammation and becomes inactive after inflammation has subsided. The condition undergoes remission following treatment or spontaneous ly and this can last for several years to years.In remission stage, patients feel well again until the conditions flares (return of symptoms and course of the disease). Active symptoms of RA include dexterity loss, lack of appetite, fatigue, joint and muscle pain, stiffness and low-grade fever. The reddening and swelling of the joints at the point of inflammation is indicative of RA. The joints also become tender and overly painful and the synovium, which is the tissue lining the joints, gets inflamed leading to overproduction of joint fluids or synovial fluid (Clair, Pisetsky, Haynes, 2001, p. 26).The inflammation of the synovium (synovitis) results in the first place from its thickening. A number of organs and other body parts are affected in rheumatoid arthritis because the disease is a systemic condition. Specifically, the disease affects several body joints which are inflamed in a symmetrical manner mainly involving the slim joints of the wrist and the hands (Clair, Pise tsky, Haynes, 2001, p. 12). The wrists and the hands are affected and the patients afflicted by the disease get it difficult to even open jars and turn door knobs. RA also affects a number of small joints of the feet.However, when a single joint is affected, the arthritis presents as joint infection or gout. Damage to tissues, bones and cartilages results from chromic inflammation and this can eventually lead to a complete cartilage loss and bone and muscle weaknesses and erosion. Joints allow become deformed, destroyed or whitethorn completely lose function. The vocal cords can be affected to a level of influencing the voice tone. The effect to the cricoarytenoid joint has been suggested to influence the voice tone and cause voice hoarseness of the afflicted individuals.Inflammation of the glands located in the mouth and eyes often cause dryness, a condition known as Sjogrens syndrome. Chest pain associated with shortness of breath, deep live or coughing results from pleuritis or the inflammation of the linings of the lungs (Clair, Pisetsky, Haynes, 2001, p. 18). Lungs tissues may become scarred, inflamed or rheumatoid nodules may form in the lungs. The pericardium or the tissues that surround the heart may become inflamed (pericarditis) and lead to massive chest pain especially when afflicted individuals lean forward or lie down (Clair, Pisetsky, Haynes, 2001, p. 19).The summarize erythrocytes and leucocytes count immensely reduces and a reduction in red line of merchandise cells leads to anemia while a decrease in leucocytes results to the enlargement of the spleen, a condition known as the Feltys syndrome (Clair, Pisetsky, Haynes, 2001, p. 17). The region close to the fingers and elbows may experience firm lumps known as the rheumatoid nodules (Clair, Pisetsky, Haynes, 2001, p. 16). While rheumatoid nodules do not lead to any significant symptoms, they can be infected occasionally. In RA patients, the nerves may become pinched around the wrist area and result to carpal tunnel syndrome.While it is rare for patients to suffer from vasculitis, the condition is one of the serious complications associated with RA and can totally impair the supply of blood to the tissues and lead to necrosis or tissue death. In vasculitis, tiny black spots around the beds of nails or ulcerations of the legs are commonly visible. Treatments To date, there is no specific known treatment for rheumatoid arthritis. However, modern interventions have been directed towards reducing pain and inflammation of the joints and maximizing the functioning of the joints.With proper management such as X-ray monitoring, the damage to joints and improvement of joint functions can be achieved. A combination of medication, sufficient pillow, joint protection, patient education and exercise to strengthen the joints has been proved effective (Clair, Pisetsky, Haynes, 2001, p. 146). The treatment plan is not supply among all patients but depends on the disease acti vity, general health of the patient, the age and occupation of the patient and the instance of joints affected by RA.In all the treatment plans, there should be total cooperation between the patient, secure and the family members. There are two main classes of drugs used in the management of RA the first-line drugs or the fast-acting drugs and the second-line or the slow acting drugs. Among the first-line drugs include aspirin and corticosteroids such as cortisone which are used in the management of joint inflation and pain. Second-line or slow acting medications, also known as disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) include agents such as methotrexate, hydroxycholoroquine and gold (Arthritis Foundation, 2010).These agents increase the chances for disease remission and prevent any progressive destruction of the joints but do not act as anti-inflammatory agents (Arthritis Foundation, 2010). Since the level of destructiveness from RA varies with individuals, treatment options also differ among individuals. For instance, patients with less destructive forms of RA can be advised to have sufficient rest or given analgesic or anti-inflammatory drugs to manage the condition.Second-line medications can be administered in a timely manner to improve the function and minimize joint destruction and disability within a short period following disease diagnosis. However, a great percentage of individuals suffering from aggressive form of RA require second-line drugs like methotrexate as well as the anti-inflammatory drugs. Different second-line drugs can also be given in combination regiment. In severe deformities of the joints, surgical procedure may be recommended to correct the deformities (Arthritis Foundation, 2010).

2.5 work file Essay Example for Free

2.5 work file EssayDirections Complete the nutrient sentry go interactive quiz. Use the information from the interactive quiz to complete the following responses regarding food safety practices. For from each one of the following food safety practices, share at least 2 statements from the interactive quiz. Be genuine to put these statements in your own words and explain why they are helpful in preventing food borne illness. An example would be When dining from a buffet, make sure hot food is hot and nippy food is cold. Food that is 40 140 degrees Fahrenheit has already begun to grow bacteria and pathogens. Clean (16 points) 1. subsequently handling raw meat, poultry, fish, or eggs wash your hands because you send word get a foodborne illness. 2. sponge fruits and vegetables with running tap water before eating, cutting, and cooking to reduce amount of bacteria present. Separate (16 points) 1. bear on many foods separate to avoid cross-contamination. It is the transfer of harmful bacteria from foods to other foods. Especially, when handling raw meat, eggs, or poultry. 2. Be sure to wash your counter and utensils with hot, soapy water to kill bacteria. Cook (16 points) 1. I f you leave cooked food out for 8 hours, throw away the food.See more The Issues Concerning Identity theft EssayBacteria can grow rapidly and cause illness when it has the nutrients it needs. 2. You can a burger is cooked when you use a food temperature and the internal part of the hamburger is 160 F. Chill (16 points) 1. Freezing food should be kept and 0 F and below because it inactivates microbes- bacteria, yeasts, and mold. 2. By refrigerating foods at cold temperatures, you have bacteria from multiplying. In your own kitchen, explain 2 food safety practices you feel your family can correct and 2 food safety practices you feel your family does well. (16 points) 2 food safety practices areRun fruits and vegetables beneath tap water before cooking, eating, and cutting. Re frigerate food when not being used because bacteria forms rapidly. 2 safety practices Wash utensils with warm, soapy water. Clean your counter with warm, soapy water to kill bacteria. In what slipway do your school and community practice or promote food safety to contribute to your personal health? (20 points) They contribute to this by reducing pollution and cleaning up the community. By doing these little things, it can help my lungs be full of oxygen and not pollutants and cleaning up the community can give up my life my protecting fish that I eat.

The rate of rReaction Essay Example for Free

The rate of rReaction EssayThese results also support my prediction and I opine that the collision surmise is quite accurate even though it is only a theory as it passs a very good explanation of what should happen and it has happened in my experiment. I am breathing out to acknowledge 0. 25M in my main experiment as I believe that this depart give a unwrap range of results and also increase the accuracy of my results. I ordain keep the amount of time the similar as I believe it was the best amount of time to get an accurate reading. I exit do my main experiment results to one decimal place as I believe that this entrust give me the most precise results.When reading the amount of blow in the cylinder I result take any number that is whole e. g. 14 to be 14. 0. To improve my reliability I will repeat each engrossment three times as I believe this will give me a reliable average. Results Table Results To Show How Much Gas Is Given Off In 5 Minutes Volume of Gas Col lected (cm ) Time in proceeding strain Concentration Test Any number highlighted ar not counted in the average as I believe that the atomic number 18 either to high, to low or do not fit into the pattern.Result that I believe is cause the results for this time to be inaccurate. ( see aim of confidence) I will not include this result in my new average. I hurl found out that 2M is the best strength of hydrochloric acid to use when you postulate a fast action, as it released the most assail in 5 minutes compared to 0.5M, 1M and 1. 5M.I disregard micturate the statement the stronger/ high molar(M) the acid the faster the reaction and the weaker/lower molar(M) the acid the slower the reaction. induction I conclude 2M is the best submergence of acid. You can see this on my graphical record, my graph shows that 2M is the best concentration of acid out of completely the ones that I essayed as it had the quickest reaction time compared to all of the other concentrations. You c an see this from the graph as 2M has got the steepest slope. I believe that the activation energy (see place setting breeding for detailed explanation) has effected my results.I believe that the concentration of the acid makes it easier for the particles to react. But what does this adjudge to do with the activation energy? Each shred has a certain amount of energy and for the molecule to react it must collide with some other molecule. It must also generate more energy that it already has. In a low concentrated solution, there are less molecules so it hard for a molecule to find other molecules to collide with, but in a high concentrated solution collisions are more frequent and even if the molecule does not collide with enough energy to react it will soon hit another molecule and have a high possibility of reacting.I predicted that the 2. 0 molar acid would have the quickest reaction time and the 0. 25 molar would have the slow-moving reaction time I also said that the other concentrations would go in order of their concentrations, the higher the concentration the more gas there will be released and the lower the concentration the less gas there will be released. I believe my predictions were accurate as I based them on the collision theory and even though it is a theory I believe it is an accurate theory and explains what is believed to happen when reactions take place very well.0. 5M and 1M start off falsely in my opinion as until 3 minutes 0. 5M had released more gas where as I believe according to the collision theory 1M should have released more gas and reacted faster, but in the end 1M released more gas. This also happened in the showtime 30 seconds of the 0. 25M where it also released more gas than the 1M. This leads me to believe that the 1M may have been the wrong concentration. It is because of this reason I am going to work out the confidence levels for my results. I will take 0 as 100% accurate and 100 as 0% accurate.Level Of Confidence I am going to work out the inaccuracy of my results I will do this by doing the wedlock Range multiplied by 100= level of inaccuracy Average I have chosen to do the inaccuracy of time as I believe that I can get a good reading of how inaccurate my results are by doing a selected number of times. Time Concentration Range of gas Average Amount of Times Equals (minutes) of acid(M) released(cm ) gas released(cm ).I am going to look at my results table and 1 Level of confidence for sum that I believed was inaccurate I have now changed the range of the gas released at 4. 5 minutes. This inaccuracy level is a lot lower than the other one.This means that that volume of gas released was to low, many things could have caused this . e. g. the temperature of the direction could have been lower than when I did the other two experiments. Evaluation I believe my results are quite accurate and would be considered reliable as non of my results have a high inaccuracy level or have a 50% chance of bei ng wrong. I have highlighted the results that I believe are wrong on my results table and have not included them in my averages. On my graph my charges go up in curves or in some sort of curve.I have joined all of the point on my graph together but on some of my curves I have done a curve of best fit, I have done this because it will show me if any results are some wrong. If you look at the green curve for 0. 5M you will see that the points at 2 and 2. 5 minutes look slightly to high, the curve of best fit shows where the points should have been. The trend I see from the graph is that the higher the concentration of the hydrochloric acid the steeper the slop of the graph is. I believe that the way in which I carried out my experiment was good as I followed my rule exactly.To improve the accuracy of my method I could have said I would use a bulb pipette or a graduate pipette as these are more accurate than a measuring cylinder, I could make authorized that the marble chips all hav e the same arise area because the marble chips with the bigger surface areas could have reacted more than the marble chips with the smaller surface areas. I could have also make sure that the room was the same temperature for each experiment because if the room was hot for one experiment and cold for another then the results would be inaccurate as the molecules would have been moving and reacting at different speeds.The results I have support my conclusion and my prediction, as what I predicted would happen did happen. The order of the concentrations for the most gas released in 5 minutes was also accurate, as it was in the order that I predicted. To extend my investigation I could test if the temperature had any effect on the amount of gas released, I believe this would provide me with the relevant information about what the optimum temperature is for a reaction to take place.I could then test the optimum concentration and the optimum temperature together and see how much gas is r eleased in 5 minutes and compare it to the branch results of the concentration and temperature. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written effectuate of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Patterns of Behaviour section.

The ultimate guide to a woman’s heart Essay Example for Free

The eventual(prenominal) guide to a womans heart EssayDear Dr. CortezI had read your book, The eventual(prenominal) Guide to a Womans Heart and have found it to be quite helpful. As an example of the typical manful menti peerlessd in your book, I had been insensitive to the feelings of the women who I have had relationships with and I at cardinal time realize the error of my ways. I applaud you gratefully for the tremendous insights that your book has shared with me and with all your male readers who are clueless about how to treat women properly. I currently am happily in a relationship with a woman that I can aptly refer to as the one describe in your book. I am very concerned about this current relationship and I would similar to ask you some questions in reference to your book in order to help me secure a lasting bond with my Maria1.) When you mentioned patience on page 54, did you mean the just kind or the unconditional?2.) As pertains to your guidelines on page 28, di d you mean to say that flowers and chocolates were both necessary, or would just one or the other do?3.) May I have a better idea of what you meant by frequent on page 59? Would thrice a week do?4.) I am usually quite busy because of work, would you suggest that I use strategy 3 or 5 on chapter 3?5.) Just in case a fatal disaster like the one described in chapter 6 page 89 occurs, is there really no chance to kill it?I truly hope that you could help me with these questions. You have made an avid reader in me and I will watch out eagerly for your succeeding works. I have included a addressed stamped envelope for you to return the answers to me. If you prefer, you can fax me at 304-411-0807 e-mail me at emailprotected or call me at 304-411-0809.Your answers will be of tremendous help in keeping the woman of my dreams happy.Sincerely,Joshua Gardens.

What Is Symbolic Interactionism Sociology Essay

What Is typic Interactionism Sociology EssayThe increased interest to the problem of communication in sociology of the 20 century actualized, in particular, richness of understanding each other at differing positions, defining own views to the opposite.Gradu everyy in the sociology was formed an integrationists branch, that analyse the integrity of the human I and his own(prenominal) self-determination in micro hearty environment.The term emblematic representationic means that on that point is an emphasis on the sense which separates put in their actions when they come into fundamental interactions with each other, and in this conjecture the club is considered from the standpoint of appearance of individual(a)s involved in the interaction.In other words, society quite a little only be explained by considering the dominions of human behavior, because only here poop be found a signifi keept symbol that defines the act of behavior.Defining of a intendful symbol takes pla ce in the human cognizantness, which is filled with meaning and knowledge from the tabooside world.General Principles emblematical interactionism focuses on the analysis of the symbolic aspects of kindly interactions.The elementary principle of interactionism is that an individual perceives (estimates) be retain in conformation with attitudes of other masses, that is, a person is for himself the sensation, whom he presents to others in the complaisant world. emblematical interactionists ar united by not a rigorous scheme, but a prevalent vision of kindly affect, defined as a process of development and changing hearty values, a constant definition and redefinition of situations, the interaction of their participants.In the process of this redefinition is changing the objective (from the view points of interacting individuals)of the medium of social activities, because the world, harmonise to interactionists, has a completely social origin. Different groups develop diffe rent worlds, which change in the process of changing the values in the course of social interaction.Symbolic interactionism is establish on three basic premises First that people react to the environment based on those values symbols, that they have in the environment. Second, these values (means of connection of events and characters) are the product of the social everyday social relations interactions. And finall(a)y, the socio-cultural values are subject to change as a result of individual perception within such interactions. (West, 2010)That is wherefore I and others form a unified whole, like society, which is the sum of the behaviors of its constituent members, but which imposes social restrictions on individual behavior.Although theoretically it is possible to separate I from the society, interactionism comes from the fact that the first understanding is connected with an as deep understanding of the second in equipment casualty of their interdependent relationship.Re presentatives of symbolic interactionism emphasizes that people are social creatures.However, unlike ants, bees, termites and other insects leading a familiar life, people almost do not have the innate models of behaviors, that connect them with each other.If we have essentially no inherent nature of the mechanisms of social behavior, how can society be?Representatives of symbolic interactionism find the answer in the ability of people to communicate through symbols. (West, 2010)In the theory of symbolic interactionism a sign is any element of the medium, which is another element in this environment.The signs are of two types firstly, it is natural signs (such as discoloration of leaves), which represent something else (like the arrival of autumn) second are dummy signs, elements that were created (such as a flag) to represent something else in the social world, for example, patriotism and duty.These substitute signs are only utile if people agree on their meaning, so thatthey are interactive two or more people must agree to continue to react to this sign in relatively constant manner.It is also undeniable to know signals from symbols signals are artificial marks, providing a predictable reaction (such as traffic signals) and symbols are artificial marks that have no definite reactions (a flag).Thus, the signals are used for regulatory policy of normative behavior in the society, and symbols are used to facilitate communicative behavior.Historical development of the TheoryAs a broad theory, symbolic interactionism appeared in the 20-s of XX century, in the Chicago school, its founder was an American sociologist George Mead.George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) is an American sociologist and social psychologist, who is considered a true founder of symbolic interactionism.Mead was known in his lifetime as a gift lecturer, and author of numerous articles, publication and republication of his lectures and articles, as well as the fundamental work Mind, ego and Society (1934) brought him international fame.He has essential a theory that explains the essence of the individuals perception of other individuals, and developed the concept of generalized other that is to some extent complementary to the theory of specular I.In accordance with the concept of I, Mead believed that the emergence of human self as a holistic mental phenomena, in essence, is null else but social process inside the individual, in which he first pointed by I conscious andI-like-object.Further, Mead suggested that through the assimilation of culture (as a complex set of characters that share viridity values for all members of society,) the person is able to predict the behavior of another person and how this other person is predicting own behavior. fit in to Mead, I-as-object is something that people can call their own.In this area, James identifies four components and arranges them in order of importance the sacred self, material self, social self and physical self .Another American philosopher and psychologist, who first began to develop a antiphonal self-concept was William James (1842-1910). James has made the first and very profound concept of personal I, considered in the background of self-knowledge, and he conjectured that the dual nature of the integral I, with many of his statements concerning the descriptive, and emotional evaluation of categorical I, anticipated the by and by developments of the idea of I-concept. (Meltzer 1975)As for other concepts of symbolic interactionism, we can name an American sociologist and social psychologist Herbert Blumer, who was a deterrent example of the Chicago school of interactionism, referring to the second generation of symbolic interactionism, founded by J. Mead.He further developed the airplane pilot framework of symbolic interactionism. Bloomer was the first who interested in the problem of mass society. According to Blumer Symbolic interactionism rests on three basic premises People are more likely to act according to the values that they attach to objects and events, rather than just react to international stimuli, such as social forces.Symbolic interactionism suggests determinism of values. Values are not just fixed and formulated in advance, but more ofttimes are created and change in interactive situations. Values are the result of interpretations that took place in interactive contexts. (Nelson 1998)Significant attention in his works Blumer paid to corporal behavior of people. Basis of collective behavior are common values, expectations, which are separated by a group of individuals.However, it often can be observed a spontaneous collective behavior, like overflowing passion, panic, etc.This behavior occurs in usurpation of established values, habitual forms of existence. Blumer distinguishes those forms of spontaneous behavior (such as Pounding, Collective excitation, SocialInfection), which under certain conditions can lead to new forms of group and insti tutional behavior Acting crowd (a spontaneously formed group, without common values and expectations, there is no recognized leadership) Expressive crowd (emotional groups carnivals, ritual dance) Mass crowd (spontaneous collective grouping of people who are excited with some event) Public (spontaneous collective group, but in public individuals interact with each other, demonstrate the rational, critical action). (Nelson 1998)Although Mead has first formulated his ideas in 1930, symbolic interactionism has become an of import part of the study equations of mass communication only in 1970, 1980.Since Meade made emphasis on interpersonal interaction and not interested in media, it is not surprising that theorists of mass communication rather unbend realized the relevance of his ideas in their research.Symbolic interactionism as the direction is not uniform, as it is possible to distinguish at least two schools.The first is the so-called Chicago School led by one of the prominent s cientists Cove J., Mead H., Bloomer.This school continues to socio-psychological tradition of Mead in the most orthodox way.It is opposed to the another Iowa school of symbolic interaction-mechanism, headed by M. Kuhn professor at the University of Iowa. This school is trying to modify several individual Meads concepts in the nature of neo-positivism.The main difference between these schools are in methodological issues, primarily in the definition of concepts and relationships to versatile methods of socio-psycho-logical investigation.Among other representatives of the theory we can name Becker and Strauss members of the Chicago School of symbolic interactionism, who were interested in the adjectival aspects of interaction.Kuhn and Partlend are representatives of Iowa schools, and were more interested in stable symbolic structures.To this generation also belongs K. Burke and Goffman, who explained social life as the realization of the metaphor of drama by analyzing the interac tion in such terms as actor, mask, scene, script and soon.Moreover, Burke used the term force field, almost literally, while Hoffman was using theater and drama as metaspheres of society while preserving its spirit, but developing its own conceptual line.The modern theory of symbolic interactionism, as a direct expression of concepts of J. Mead, has practically the same advantages, shortcomings and contradictions of the J. Mead concept.On the one hand, it is master(prenominal) to point interactionists effort to isolate the specific human traits in human behavior, the view on the individual as a social phenomenon, to find a socio-psychological mechanisms of identity formation in interaction with others in society, to stress active creativepersonal traits of the individual.However, the subjective idealist position of interactionists lead to the fact that all the social connections they see only in interpersonal communication, and while the analysis of communication they ignore the limit and the substantive work of individuals, not seeing that the process of formation of the personality includes not only the replacement of views, but more importantly, the exchange of activities. (Reynolds 1993)theory importance and ApplicationThe advantage of this approach is that it introduces people in the field of sociological research.It directs attention to the activities of individuals in their daily lives and sees that people are not robots, mechanically carrying out the requirements of social rules and institutional norms, but leading the public life of beings with the ability to feel and think.In the interaction they operate with symbols and values which enable them to evaluate and interpret situations of social life, assess the advantages and disadvantages of certain actions and then favour one of them. Thus, representatives of symbolic interactionism suggest the image of man as an individual, actively forming his behavior, rather than passively reacting to externa l environment and structural constraints.However, the approach of symbolic interactionism has its weaknesses.In everyday life people do not have complete freedom in forming and changing their actions.Although representatives of symbolic interactionism recognize that many human actions are guided by the established systems of symbols and meanings, including culture and social system.Critics argue that the theory of social interaction based on the symbols makes an excessive emphasis on short-term situations and exaggerates attention to transient, episodic and temporary. (Reynolds 1993)Thus, the theory is applied to thread and analyze human behavior, as through the process of socialization people can more or less consciously interpret stimuli and expected responses.ConclusionFrom the prospect of interactionists, human society is composed of individuals with personal I, who themselves form norms and values. Individual action is a construction, not just a commission, as it is carried b y the individual using the estimation and interpretation of the situation in the social environment.Personal I am can serve as a persons target for his actions.Formation of values is presented as a set of actions in which the individual sees the object, gives it value, and decides to act on this matter.Interpretation of the actions of another is a definition of the value of certain actions of others.From the perspective of interactionists, an object is not just external stimulus, but something that distinguishes man from the outside world, giving him certain value.This theory explains how individuals interact with the environment and how behave in the process of socialization.

The Salafi Movement In Global Context Theology Religion Essay

The Salafi g all(prenominal)ery In Global Context Theology holiness EssaySalafism (al-Salafiyyah) is a contemporaneous Muslim global sweat, which is concerned with a search for the pure t for each mavinings of Islam as prescribed in the leger and the prophet Muhammads tradition (sunnah) by rejecting whatever external influences and human interest group in the interpretation of spectral texts. The proponents of Salafism define themselves to be the inheritors of the pre-modern font Ahl al-Hadits (people of the seer tradition). In their view, this school of theory was the nonwithstanding group that re chief(prenominal)ed faithful to the pure teachings of Islam as prescribed in the Quran and the Sunnah so that it was considered the protected sect. They base their call on a hadith (the Prophet Muhammad sayings) that the Prophet Muhammad was reported to have verbalise that there would al ship stylus be a group of his people who remained committed to the truth, whom the Salafi s identify as the Ahl al-Hadith (Duderija, 2011). By claiming to be the inheritors of the Ahl al-Hadith and chase of its footsteps, the proponents of contemporary Salafi movement attempt to assert that they have privilege and take pride to be the guardians of the pure Islam in modern period.The proponents of contemporary Salafism identify themselves, and are proud to be, as salafi (plural salafiyyin), the pursual of al-salaf al-shalih(the righteous ancestors). For them, the term salaf refers to the start-off three Muslim generations in the primeval Islam, who were considered as the best Muslim generations as they were directly guided by the Prophet Muhammad and his Companions. This self-ascription is based on their belief that their understanding and practicing Islam is in complete accordance with the footsteps and ruleology of the salaf (manhaj al-salaf). Abdullah ibn Baz, one of the main Salafi authorities, said that Salafi ideology is derived from the Quran, Sunnah and Conse nsus (ijma) which govern the method of acquiring din religion and understanding the Quran and Sunnah according to the principles agreed upon by the righteous predecessors (salaf) (Cited in Duderija, 201154). Due to this strong emphasis on the Salaf as the only model of understanding and practicing Islam, Salafism hind shites be said as a movement of return to the forefather (Marshallsay, 2004).Major Authorities of the Contemporary Salafi MovementWithin contemporary Salafi movement, the most influential proponents are the in-between Eastern Muslim scholars with Saudi-Arabian nationality or Saudi-educated, university educated, many gained PhDs in Muslim sciences from Saudi universities. These include Nashir al-Din al-Albani (d.1999), Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz (d. 1999), Muhammad ibn Shalih al-Uthaymin (d. 2001), Muqbil ibn Hadi al-Wadii (d. 2001), Rabi ibn Hadi al-Madkhali (b. 1931), Yahya al-Hajuri, and Shalih al-Fawzan. The dominance of Saudi Arabian or Saudi-educated sacred scholars (ulama) asserts the centrality of Saudi Arabia as the birth of modern Salafism. As the main conciliateative of the Salafi movement, these ulama become speculate destinations that Salafi leaders and ordinary followers in the Muslim world turn to for guidance and advice in their lives. alfresco the essence East, leading personalities of Salafism in Western countries such(prenominal) as Jamal Zarabozo and Bilal Philips (Duderija, 2011) mostly become the mouthpiece of these midpoint East authorities, translating their Salafi mess whiles for the Western Salafi followers. The same is true for the leaders of the Salafi movement in Indonesia. Most of them went to Saudi and Yemen universities or Muslim religious learning institutions (mahad) to study Islamic experience. These include Abu Nida, Ahmad Faiz, Yusuf Baisa, Jafar Umar Thalib, Ayip Syafrudin, Luqman Baabduh and Muhammad Umar Sewed (Hasan, 2007 2009). Compared to their locally trained Salafi proponents, these warmhearted ness East graduates commonly enjoy more authority and recognition from their followers due to their highly-esteemed learning in Mecca or Medinah, two holy cities of Islam. Yet, all of these Salafi exponents make the Saudi and Yemeni Salafi authorities as major, and to almost extent, the only references in learning and preaching Salafi ideas among Indonesian Muslims.The Middle East Salafi authorities write treatises on Salafi ideas exclusively in Arabic. But, this is non a major barrier for Salafi followers from non-Arabic speaking countries to understand the messages of these Salafi ulama. The Salafi followers and sympathizers have attempted to trans tardy the kit and caboodle of these Salafi ulama into local languages. For this purpose, in Western countries, they have constituted publishing houses, including Tarbiyyah Publications in Toronto, Invitation to Islam and Al-Khilafat Publications in London, and Salafi Publications and Maktabah Darussalam in Birmingham. Mobilizing the information and communication technologies, they have created websites such as www.salafipublications.com, www.tarbiyyahbookstore.com, http//sunna.com, www.salaf.com, and www.fatwa-online.com. single Salafi authorities websites have been also naturalised by the Salafi supporters, such as www.binbaz.com (on the works of Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz), www.rabee.net (on the works of Rabi ibn Hadi al-Madkhali), and www.ibnothaimeen.com (on the works of Muhammad ibn al-Uthaymin) (Duderija, 2011).The Puzzle of the Origin and Meaning of SalafismFor decades, there has been conviction among Western and Western-educated scholars that history of Salafism is a history of Islamic contemporaneity that Salafi ideas are regarded as similar to those of Islamic modernist movement and the Salafis are representatives of Muslim modernist. It is believed that Salafism dates back to the nineteenth Islamic modernism, which was associated with Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (d. 1897), Muhammad Abduh (d. 1905), and Ras hid Ridha (d. 1935), whose principles and ideas include rejection of taqlid ( projection screen following), promotion of ijtihad (independent interpretation), and support of progress and rationality in its responses to the decline of the Muslim world. As Lauziere (2010) identifies, this conception can be seen in the standard academic works of Islamic thought such as Brills Encyclopedia of Islam, Malcolm Kerrs Islamic Reform (1966), M. A. Zaki Badawis The Reformers of Egypt (1978), and Daniel Browns Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought (1996). round recent studies by scholars of contemporary Islam, such as Ali Hassan Zaidi (2006) and Dumber and Tayob (2011), also connect Salafi orientations with Muslim elucidateists in the modern nineteenth and primal 20th centuries.However, this conception is problematic in any(prenominal) enjoys. First, there is no win over evidence to the claim of the fellowship among Salafism, al-Afghani, and Abduh. According to Lauziere (2010), there are no primary sources including al-Urwat al-Wuthqa, a flagship ledger of al-Afghani and Abduh, that intimately prove the claim that al-Afghani and Abduh coined the term Salafism and employ it to identify themselves and their reform movement in the nineteenth ascorbic acid. It is true that Abduh mentioned the term al-Salafiyyin (the Salafis) in Al-Manar (Al-Manar 5, 1902 cited in Lauziere 2010) to designate Sunni Muslims who were against Ashariyyah, a 10th century school of conceptional Islamic godliness,1in terms of theological cut downs based on their strict adherence to the creed of the forefathers (Lauziere, 2010). But, Abduh distinctly did not claim to be a Salafi nor identified his followers as Salafis. He simply referred al-Salafiyyin in the context of theological debates as Sunni Muslims who differed from Asharites based on their strict adherence to aqidat al-salaf (the creed of the forefather) (Lauziere, 2010).Moreover, Rasyid Ridha, one of Muhammad Abduhs m ain disciples, recognized the fundamental differences between Salafism and Islamic modernist school, which his mentor promoted. According to Ridha, following the Salafi creed did not unavoidably make one committed to Islamic modernist school. During his time, Ridha identified Salafism as Wahhabism to which he called al-Wahhabiyyah al-Salafiyyah. Later, in 1928 he and n primaeval of his disciples declared their passage to becoming Salafis not only with respect to Islamic theology but also in fiqh or Islamic jurisprudence (Lauziere, 2010).Second, the unconfirmed claim of ideological connection between contemporary Salafism and the starting 20th century Islamic modernism can be seen in the issue of how each defines the term Salaf. While the two movements shared out the idea of the importance of the pious ancestors, they differ in the issue of to what extent the Salaf is delimitate and how it should be modelled. The proponents of Islamic modernism conceived that the term Salaf inc ludes virtually the Muslim scholars of all schools of thought in the medieval period whose success and achievements should be contextually propagated and imitated within modern Muslim contexts. The too soon 20th century Salafism understood the Salaf as Muslim scholars in religious science as healthy as in secular science of the golden age of Islam in the medieval period that should be contextually followed.In contrast, the proponents of contemporary Salafism restrict the Salaf to the first three generations in the early Islam, namely the companions of the Prophet Muhammad (al-shahabat), those after them (al-tabiin) and the next generation after them (atbau al-tabiin). They also include religious scholars (ulama) in the first and second centuries of Islam who were considered to adhere to the direction of these first three Muslim generations, peculiarly Ahmad bin Hanbal and the followers of his textual school. These Salaf generations and Salafi ulama were considered rightly guided forefathers and, hence, role models to whom Muslims are obliged to follow their ways in any circumstances. In addition, when the proponents of contemporary Salafism speak nigh the Salaf, they use it in its narrow religious sense. Practically, they exclude, show uncertainty and hostility towards favorable, cultural and scientific heritage of the Muslim forefathers. In their view, the perfect method of modelling the Salaf in the contemporary Muslim societies is preserving and imitating their footsteps without contextualizing them in the present contexts.Third, the issue of the unconfirmed ideological connection between Salafism and the late 19th century Islamic modernism can be discerned in differences between them with respect to methodological analysis and objectives. In response to the decline of the Islamic world, the Islamic modernism of al-Aghani and Abduh was committed to islah (reform) in Muslim family through promotion of itidal (moderation and balance) by which Muslims were expected to conduct conciliation between Islam and Western civilization. It pull aheadd the taste perception and adoption of social, political and scientific achievements of Western civilization and at the same rooted firmly in Islamic principles and civilization. In other words, al-Afghani and Abduhs Islamic modernism was a moderate approach to Islam and Western civilization in that it was able to balance between revelation and reason, and between strict Islamic conservatism and blind following of the West (Lauziere, 2010).Contemporary Salafism, in contrast, aims to revive the golden age of Islam by adhering strictly to the ways of the first three Muslim generations in the early Islam understood and practiced Islam to protect its purity from veto religious innovation. From this perspective, the making of the Salaf as a perfect model requires strict applying the Salaf method in social and cultural vacuum, without contextualizing their ideas and practices within present cont exts of the Muslim world. Subsequently, this movement regards revealed texts as the only primary sources so that its proponents ladder to be anti-rationalistic approach to revelation. The proponents of contemporary Salafism are also suspicious of anything not textually written in the scripture, taught or done by the Prophet Muhammad, his companions and religious scholars adhered to their ways. Conservatism, or even ultra conservatism, is highly represented in contemporary Salafi movement.As a result, there is no adequate evidence to claim ideological connection between the late 19th and early 20th centurys Islamic modernism and the contemporary Salafi movement. There is no support that Al-Afghani and Abduh proclaimed they were Salafis or exponents of the Salafi movement or their ideas were in accordance with contemporary Salafism. The modernist conception of Salafism substantially differs from the contemporary Salafisms understanding of the same term. Within contemporary Salafi mov ement, salafism is conceived first and foremost as label by Sunni purist-literalist-traditionalists to designate their particular approach to Islam.Conceptual History of SalafismUndoubtedly, the uncertainty of the origin and meaning of Salafism within modern scholarship has ca apply the substance of Salafism remain puzzling. Fortunately, a recent study by Henri Lauziere (2010) is helpful in closure this impersonate and gaining relative certainty in the issues of the origin and meaning of Salafism. He argues that the puzzle of the meaning and origins of Salafism is referable to the faulty scholarship and the fact that there is little scholarly attention to the examination of the history of knowledge production of Salafism (Lauziere, 2010369).The First Use of the Term SalafismHistorically speaking, Salafism as a religious orientation is not purely a modern phenomenon. Rather, it rooted in the Islamic scholarship in pre-modern history of Islam. The early use of the term Salafism (Sa lafiyyah) as an approach to religious texts is set up in a number of religious scholars works in the medieval period. For example, Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1238) writes in his al-Fatawa al-KubraAs for the Salafiyya it is as Hamd ibn Muhammad al-Khattabi and Abu Bakr al-Khatib al-Bagdadi and other have stated The way of the Salaf is to interpret literally the Quran verses and hadiths that relate to the Divine attributes (ijra ayat al-sifat wa ahadits al-sifat ala zahiriha), and without indicating modality and without attributing to Him anthropomorphic qualities. So that one is not to state that the meaning of hand is power or that of hearing is knowledge (Cited in Haykel, 200938).However, as Haykel (2009) and Dumbe Tayob (2011) suggest, the historical precedent of the Salafi orientations even dates back earlier to the 9th century theological and juridical debates between the Ahl al-Ray (people of opinion), which was associated with the Mutazilah,2and Ahl al-Hadith (people of the Prophet Mu hammads tradition), which was related to Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855), the inspirer of the Hanbali school of law (Hanbaliyyah).3Particularly, the early use of the term Salaf and its derivatives in this period can be traced back to the Ahl al Hadits. It is reported that Ibn Hanbal saidIt has been transmitted from more than one of our ancestors (salafina) that they said the Quran is the speech of God and is uncreated, and this is what I endorse. I do not engage in speculative theology and I hold that there is nothing to be said other than what is in Gods Book (Quran), the traditions of His messenger or those of his companions and their followers- may God have mercy on them. It is not praiseworthy to engage in theological discussion in matters not contained therein (Cited in Haykel, 200938).These statements not only refer to the early use of the terms Salaf and Salafism within Islamic scholarship, but also points out the way of thinking that the early Salafis advocated in regard to theol ogical issues such as the nature of the Quran as Gods messages revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. With respect to the approach to the interpretation of religious texts, the Ahl al-Ray represented Muslims scholars who sought explanations from personal opinions and borrowings from other cultures and intellectual traditions, bandage the Ahl al-Hadits sufficed themselves with literal meanings of the texts and tradition of the Prophet and his companions believed as pure and original sources of Islam.Another corresponding term, madhhab al-salaf (the school of forefathers), is found in the literature of Muslim scholars of medieval period. As Lauziere (2010372) suggests, written sources also indicate that medieval Muslims scholars employ this term primarily in the theological debates within early schools of theology in Islam. The notion of madhhab al-salaf was used to designate those who hold a theological purity in a time when early Muslims were not faced yet with speculative theology (il m al-kalam) resulted from the encounter of Islam and other world civilizations. The proponents of madhhab al-salaf showed hostility towards Islamic speculative theology (ilm al-kalam) which was influenced by Greek inspiration and rationalism such ilm al-mantiq (syllogistic logic) and falsafah (philosophy). Contrary to Islamic theologians (mutakalimin) such as Mutazilis and Asharites, the people of the madhhab al-salaf distanced themselves from intellectualizing the divine issues, such as al asma wal sifat (the divine names and attributes). However, the word Salafi or Salafism was not commonly used by medieval purist Muslims to refer to themselves and their approach to Islam. Instead, the common epithets used to refer to the purists at the period were not derived from the word salaf, but rather from the terms associated with the Prophet Muhammads tradition, such as Ahl al-Sunnah (people of the revelatory tradition), Ahl al-Hadist (people of prophetic sayings and sayings) or al-Atsar i (the follower of the prophetic report) (Lauziere, 2010373).The Origin of the Confusion of Salafism Louis Massignon and the Salafyah ReviewA recent study by Lauziere (2010) revealed the origin of the confusion between Salafism and Islamic modernism in scholarly literature. He argues that puzzle of Salafism lies in the fact Massignon and scholars who quoted him were not aware of the complex development of the Salafi epithets within Muslim scholars in the Middle East. They simply relied on al-Majallah al-Salafiyyah, a monthly reformist diary published by Salafiyya bookstall in Egypt -whose key role in Salafi discourses will be examined in the following section- that reached overseas including Paris. Being established in 1917, the journal was edited by Abd al-Fattah Qatlan and rendered by him into English as Salafyah Review. The journal was purported to serve as a marketing vehicle for reaching a wider readership of the Salafiyyah Bookstore. More importantly, the journal was created in the period in which the reform spirit overwhelmed the Salafiyyah Bookstore before the coming of the Saudi-Wahhabi influence on the type of literature it published. So, in line with the reform spirit, the journal aimed to spread the achievements of the pious ancestors (al-salaf) in a wide range of scientific, cultural and intellectual fields. In line with this spirit, the content of the journal encompassed various themes such as literature, linguistics, and astronomy in addition to religious topics (Lauziere, 2010379).It was through this journal that the term Salafism caught the attention of Western scholars (Lauziere, 2010). Louis Massignon, a well-known French orientalist and the major contributor to the leading journal Revue du monde musulman, subscribed to Arabic journals including al-Majallah al-Salafiyyah. When the first issue of the journal reached his journal office, Massignon provided explanation of the Majallah al-Salafiyyah to the readers of his journal. He said that t he Salafiyyah was an intellectual movement that emerged in early 19th century India at the time of Sayyid Ahmad Barelwi (d. 1931) and Siddiq Hasan Khan (d. 1890), the founder of the Ahl-i Hadith movement, had later rehashed its ideas (Cited in Lauziere, 2010380). Then, he added that from there, the Salafiyyah was spread by Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Syaikh Abduh and established itself in Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo and even in the Maghrib and Java (Revue du monde musulman 34, 1916-18 in Lauziere, 2010380). But, later Massignon abolished the connection of the Salafiyyah with the 19th century Indian movement and focused more on its link with al-Afghani and Abduh. Then, he associated Salafiyyah with a relatively transnational Islamic modernism in the 19th century, whose proponents were committed to reform in Islam and Muslim societies (Lauziere, 2010).However, Massignons claim of Salafism is problematic as it raised questions with respect to conceptual and historical foundations of Sala fism he based on. It is not lightheaded how he came to this claim though it is known that he studied Islam in Baghdad and made contacts with some reform-oriented Muslim scholars like Jamal al-Din al-Qasimi. Due to this, it can be said that Massignon misinterpreted the term Salafiyyah and inadequately made Salafism and Islamic modernism of al-Afghani and Abduh synonymous (Lauziere, 2010).Nevertheless, as Lauziere (2010381) shows, some leading scholars welcomed Massignons definition of Salafism and even took its validity for granted notwithstanding its factual limitations. The famous The New World of Islam, published in 1921, repeated this misinterpretation when made reference to Salafiyyah. In 1922, the leading journal The Moslem World published by Hartford Seminary did the same when it translated an obligate of Massignon from the Revue du monde musulman. This is further misinterpreted by Henri Laoust, a scholar who spread Massignons ideas in French, when in his seminal hold in 1 932 defined Salafism based on Massignons conception. Even influential scholar Sir Hamilton Gibb took Massignons claim of Salafism for granted in his famous Modern Trends in Islam. Hence, it is through this intellectual transmission that the term Salafism with the sense of Islamic modernist movement was created within Western scholarly literature on Islam.The Evolution of SalafismIf there is no connection with al-Afghani and Abduhs Islamic modernism of the late 19th century, who first used the Salafi label as understood today? And how was it defined? As Lauziere (2010) argues, to remedy this puzzle requires considering the origin and development of the term Salafism from the perspective of conceptual history.According to Lauziere (2010, the suppuration popularity of Salafi epithets as well as overlap between Salafism and Islamic modernism can be attributed to a key role played by the Salafiyah Bookstore (al-Maktabat al-Salafiyyah). It was established in 1909 in Cairo by Muhib al-Din al-Khatib (1886-1969), a Syrian activist, well-known figure in the Egyptian publishing business, and pupil of Salafis-cum-modernists ulama, Jamal al-Din al-Qasimi (d. 1914) and Tahir al-Jazairi (d. 1920). Al-Khatibs link in cultural and political affairs opened the opportunity to establish the bookstore aimed at dissemination his interests in Islamic scholarship and reformist ideas under the label Salafiyyah (Salafism). The name Salafiyyah for the bookstore was inspired by al-Khatibs mentor, Tahir al-Jazairi, who had inclinations to the madhhab al-salaf (school of the forefathers) with respect to Islamic theology.But, it seemed that al-Khatib misinterpreted the term Salafiyyah or understood it in a broader sense than al-Jazairi meant (Lauziere, 2010). This is reflected in the way he and his partner, Abdul Fattah Qatlan (d. 1931), operated the Salafiyyah Bookstore, particularly in terms of the type of literature they published. Being motivated by desires to encourage educated Arab readers to rediscover the glory of their religious, social and cultural heritage for the advancement of their society, al-Khatib and Qatlan were not confined themselves in printing and selling books on the Salafi theology. Rather, they published works on progressive nature of Islams golden age as well as a wide range of issues not connected to religious reform. They used the Salafi epithets to refer virtually to any Islamic intellectual heritage in medieval period, not in a narrow sense of a particular school of theology. In addition to treatises on religion, the Salafiyyah Bookstore published works on Arabic literature, Arabic grammar, and work of medieval Muslim philosophers such al-Farabi (d.950) and Ibn Sina (d.1037). In short, the literature that the Salafiyyah Bookstore published and sold in the 1910s was in accordance with the spirit and concerns of Islamic modernism (Lauziere, 2010378).The selection and publication of this type of literature suggest that al-Khatib and Qatla n attempted to revive the works of the great Muslim scholars and underline the Muslimss contribution to modernity in the West of modern age. Under the label Salafism, they sought to express the compatibility between revelation and modernity as shown by the works of great and pious forefathers (Salaf) in the sometime(prenominal) by which Muslims in the modern age should model for the revival and advancement of the Islamic world. In turn, all this resulted in turning Salafiyyah into a common and popular term among producers and consumers of Arabic literature in the Middle East and other Muslim regions (Lauziere, 2010382). More importantly, an impression built up that the Salafiyyah Bookstore intertwined the term Salafism with Islamic modernism projected to the revival of Arabs and Muslims in the modern period. The label Salafism it used was then considered as to represent the success and greatness of the Islamic past. The bookstore expanded the scope of the term Salafism beyond its initial theological meanings and gradually created the standoff between Salafism and the project of Islamic modernism (Lauziere, 2010377).The later development of the Salafiyyah Bookstore, however, determined the association of Islamic modernism and Salafism and brought roughly decisive limitings in the nature and development of Salafism after the establishment of the Saudi domain in the early 1920s. The bookstore experienced a shift with respect to resources of works for publication. This began with the change in the choice of works for publication. In the early 1920s, al-Khatib and Qatlan began to print works that appeared contradictive to the progressive and rationalist ideas of the Islamic reform movement though they kept promoting Islamic modernism. For example, the Salafiyyah Bookstore published works of those who strongly foreign the secular and controversial works of Ali Abd al-Raziq and Taha Husayn. It also published anti-rationalist treatises by Hanbali and his schoo l followers ordered by Saudis. This shift in the choice of publications was more clearly discernable in the establishment of the Saudi wooden leg of the Salafiyyah Bookstore in Mecca in the late 1920 initiated by Qatlan in partnership with a Hijazi Muhammad Salih Nasif (d.1971). In 1928, to character the local needs, this Saudi branch began to publish works on Ahmad ibn Hanbal and his supporters as well pro-Wahhabi books such a theological treatise by Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyya (1292-1350), which was printed with the request and fund from Ibn Saud (d. 1932), the first monarch of Saudi Arabia (Lauziere, 2010383).This shift within the Salafiyya Bookstores choice of publications, according to Lauziere (2010), should be seen in the context of political change in the Muslim world in the mid 1920s. The fall of the Ottoman Empire and the abolition of Islamic caliphate in the early 1920s brought about political and cultural turbulence within the Muslim world. At the same time, however, the rise of the Saudi Kingdom in Hejaz offered Muslim ummah (global Muslim community) a great hope of social and political renaissance in the Muslim world. Therefore, many Muslims intellectuals and religious scholars, including Rasyid Ridha, supported the little Saudi state and turned toward religious conservatism, particularly Wahhabism,4founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792), and endorsed as an official school of Islam and promoted by the state. Al-Khatib showed the same response to these circumstances. He opted to support the young Saudi state and showed respect to the Wahhabism and its proponents. These religio-political stances influenced the activities of his Salafiyyah Bookstore. This was reflected in the change of choices of editing and publishing when it began to publish the Wahhabi treatises and pro-Saudi works.Although Lauziere missed to grab the complexity of social and political transformation in the Muslim world in the first quarter of twentieth century, his argument was sufficient to overcome to the puzzle of Salafism by making sense of the evolution of Salafism. By publishing pro-Wahhabi works to cater the religious and political needs of the Saudi elite and proponents of Wahhabism, the Salafiyyah Bookstore brought its commercial label Salafism closer to Wahhabism. Though the Cairo Salafiyyah Bookstore still published modernist themes, the popularization and commodification of the Salafi epithets by the Saudi branch of the Salafiyyah Bookstore had brought the Wahhabi religious orientation to the fore. The unfounded intellectual association between Salafism (Salafiyyah) and al-Afghani and Abduhs Islamic reform as well as the absence of the monopoly over Salafism as a marketing brand that al-Khatib and Qatlan business leader have opened opportunity to the proponents of the Wahhabi-oriented purist movement kept using Salafiyyah as the label of their publications ignoring any modernist order of business as initiated by the original Sala fi Bookstore in Cairo (Lauziere, 2010). It can be added that given that they shared the strong reference to the pious forefather (al-salaf al-shalih) with respect to theological issues with the Salafiyyah Bookstore, at least in its early years of operation, the proponents of Wahhabism had no difficulties in taking the advantage of using Salafism as their label of spreading the purist ideas of Ibn al-Wahhab. with these religious-political processes, consequently, the Salafi epithets experienced re-definition and counter-definitions. More importantly, this gradually created the impression that the term Salafism and Wahhabism of Saudi Arabia were synonymous. The opening of the Saudi-connected Salafiyyah bookstores outside Saudi Arabia, such as in Syria and Pakistan, enforced this impression (Lauziere, 2010). Undoubtedly, this evolution of Salafism explains the state of the contemporary development of the Salafi movement with Saudi Arabia as its major supporter. Due to the fact that it is a contemporary phenomenon that assigns the epistemological value to traditions, Adis Duderija (20072011) labels the proponents of this contemporary Salafism as Neo-Traditional Salafis.In its later development, in the 1960s Wahhabi-inspired Salafism encountered with religious-political ideas brought by the Islamic activists who fled from their ruling governments repression and persecution found Saudi Arabia secure haven. This has to do with the Saudi Arabias policy under King Faisal (d. 1975) to support Islamic solidarity in its attempts to oppose Egypts pan-Arabism promoted by President Jamal Abdel Nasser (d. 1970), which was regarded as a threat to the existence of the kingdom (Lacroix, 2010).Among these refugees were the members of al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun (the Muslim Brotherhood), a religious-political movement that first emerged in Egypt in 1928 and then spread to the Muslim world. The political aspects of the ideology of al-Ikhwan al Muslimun encountered with the puritanical i deas of Wahhabism (Wahhabiyyah) brought about an intellectual hybrid identified as al-Sahwa al-Islamiyya (th