High Performance Liquid Chromatography Experiment

High Performance Liquid Chromatography Experiment INTRODUCTION Pharmaceutical Analysis may be defined as the application of analytical procedures used to determine the purity, safety and quality of drugs and chemicals. The term Pharmaceutical analysis is otherwise called quantitative pharmaceutical chemistry. Pharmaceutical analysis includes both qualitative and quantitative analysis of drugs and pharmaceutical substances starts from bulk drugs to the finished dosage forms. In the modern practice of medicine, the analytical methods are used in the analysis of chemical constituents found in human body whose altered concentrations during disease states serve as diagnostic aids and also used to analyze the medical agents and their metabolites found in biological system. Qualitative inorganic analysis seeks to establish the presence of given element or inorganic compound in a sample. Qualitative organic analysis seeks to establish the presence of a given functional group or organic compound in a sample. Quantitative Quantitative analysis seeks to establish the amount of a given element or compound in a sample. The term quality as applied to a drug product has been defined as the sum of all factors, which contribute directly or indirectly to the safety, effectiveness and reliability of the product. These properties are built into drug products through research and during process by procedures collectively referred to as Quality control. Quality control guarantees with in reasonable limits that a drug products Is free of impurities. Is physically and chemically stable Contains the amount of active ingredients as stated on the label and Provides optimal release of active ingredients when the product is administered. Most modern analytical chemistry is categorized by two different approaches such as analytical targets or analytical methods. INTRODUCTION FOR CHROMATOGRAPHY: High performance liquid chromatography is the process, which seperates mixture containing two or more components under high pressure. In this the stationary phase is packed in column one end of which is attached to a source of pressurized liquid mobile phase. High performance liquid chromatography is the fasted growing analytical technique for the analysis of drug. Its simplicity, high specificity and wide range of sensitivity makes its ideal for the analysis of many drugs in both dosage form and biologic fluids. HPLC is also known as High performance liquid chromatography. It is essential form column chromatography in which the stationary phase is consists of a small particles (3-5o µm) packing contained in a column with a small bore (2-5mm), one end of which is attached to source of pressurized liquid eluent(mobile phase). Different Types of Principles: According to the phases involved, HPLC can be classified into several types, which are as follows: Normal Phase Chromatography (NPC) Reverse Phase Chromatography (RPC) Liquid Solid Chromatography or adsorption HPLC Liquid Liquid Chromatography or Partition HPLC Ion exchange Chromatography or Ion exchange HPLC Size exclusion or gel permeation or steric exclusion HPLC 1. Normal Phase Chromatography (NPC): In normal phase chromatography, the stationary phase is more polar then the mobile phase, and the mobile phase is a mixture of organic solvents with out added water (e.g. isopropane with hexane) and the column packing is either an inorganic adsorbent (silica) are a polar bonded phase (cyanno, diol, amino) on a silica support. Sample retention in normal phase chromatography increases with the polarity of mobile phase decreases. They are eluted in the order of increasing polarities. 2. Reverse Phase Chromatography (RPC): In reverse-phase chromatography, the stationary phase is less polar than the mobile phase and the mobile phase is a mixture of organic and aqueous phase. Reverse-phase chromatography is typically more convenient and rugged than the other forms of liquid chromatography and is more likely to result in a satisfactory final separation. High performance RPC columns are efficient, stable and reproducible. In this, the solutes are eluted in the order of their decreasing polarities. These are prepared by treating the surface silanol group of site with an organic chloro silane reagent. INSTRUMENTATION: RECORDER SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF HPLC a. Pumps: Pumps are required to deliver a constant flow of mobile phase at pressures ranging from 1 550 bar pumps capable of pressure up to 6000 psi provide a wide range of flow rates of mobile phase, typically from 0.01-10ml min-1. Low flow rates (10-100à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ­l min-1) are used with micro bore columns, intermediate flow rates (0.5-2ml min-1) are used with conventional analytical HPLC columns, and fast flow rates are used for preparative or semi preparative columns and for slurry packing techniques. Mechanical pumps of the reciprocating piston type view a pulsating supply of mobile phase. A damping device is there fore required to smooth out the pulses so that excessive noise at high levels of sensitivity or low pressure does not detract from detection of small quantities of sample. This type of pump is mostly used. Dual piston reciprocating pumps produce an almost pulse free flow because the two pistons are carefully faced so that as one is filling the other is pumping. These pumps are more expensive than single piston pumps but are of benefit when using a flow sensitive detector such as ultraviolet or refractive index detector. b. Injection Systems: Injection ports are of two basic types, (A) those in which the sample with injected directly into the column and (B) those in which the sample is deposited before the column inlet and then swept by a valving action into the column by the mobile phase. c. Columns: HPLC columns are made of high quality stainless steel, polish internally to a mirror finish. Standard analytical columns are 4-5 mm internal diameter and 10-30 cm in length. Shorted columns (3-6 cm) containing a smaller particles size packing material (3 or 5 à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ­m) produce similar or better efficiencies, in terms of the number of theoretical plates (about 7000), that those of 20 cm columns containing 10 à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ­m irregular particles and are used an short analysis time and highest throughput of samples are required. Micro bore columns of 1-2 mm internal diameter and 10-25 cm in length have certain advantages of lower detection limits and lower consumption of solvent, the latter being important if expensive HPLC grade solvents are used. HPLC are also being carried out on the semi preparative scales by using columns of 7-10 mm or 20-40 mm internal diameter respectively. d. Detectors: The most widely used detectors for liquid chromatography are Detector Analytes Solvent Requirements Comments UV-Visible Any with chromophores UV-grade non UV absorbing solvents Has degree of selectivity and useful for many HPLC applications Fluorescence Fluorescent compounds UV-grade non UV absorbing solvents Highly selective and sensitive, often used to analyze derivitized compounds Refractive index Compounds with different RI than mobile phase Cannot run mobile phase gradients Limited sensitivity Conductivity Charged or polar compounds Mobile phase must be conducting Excellent for ion exchange compounds Electrochemical Readily oxidized or reduced compounds, specially biological samples Mobile phase must be conducting Very selective and sensitive Mass-Spectrometer Broad range compounds Must use volatile solvents or volatile buffers Highly sensitive. Many modes available. Needs trained person Theoretical principles of HPLC: a. Retention time: The time is required between the injection point and the peak maximum is called the retention time. It is denoted as the Rt. It is mainly useful for the qualitative analysis for the identification of compound. b. Capacity factor: It represents the molar ratio of the compound in the stationary phase and the mobile phase. It is independent of column length and mobile phase flow rate. It is denoted as the k. It should be kept 1-10. If k values are too low it is likely that the solutes may be adequately resolved and for high k values the analysis time is too long. It can be calculated by tr t0 k = - t0 tr = Retention time, t0 = Dead time. c. Tailing factor: Closer study of a chromatographic show that the Gaussian forms is usually not completely symmetrical. The graph spread out to a greater or lesser extent, forming a tail. It reduces the column plate number which intern influences the resolution. Tailing is mainly due to deteriorated column, overloading column, extra column-volumes, and incompatibility of sample with standard and/or mobile phase. Practically it can be calculated or determined at 10% of the total peak height. It must not be greater than 2.0 d. Resolution: The degree of separation of one component from another is described by the resolution. It is generally denoted by Rs. It is measured as the difference in retention time and the arithmetic mean of the two peak widths. tr2 tr1 Rs = 0.5(w1 + w2) tr2 = Retention time of first peak w1 = width of first peak tr1 = Retention time of second peak w2 = width of second peak e. Theoretical plates: It is important property of the column. It reflects its quality of separation and its ability to produce sharp, narrow peak and achieving good resolution of peak. N denotes it. 3500 X L (cm) Theoretical plates = - dp( µm) L = length of the column in cm, dp = diameter of the particle ( µm) It follows that if the exchange is fast and efficient, the theoretical plate will be small in size and there will be large number of plates in the column. f. Height equivalent to theoretical plate (HETP): Number of plates directly proportional to the column length (L) and inversely proportional to the diameter of the particles (dp). The value of H is a criterion for the quality of a column. Lower the HETP, higher is the efficiency of the column. Its value depends upon particle size, flow rate, viscosity of mobile phase. H = L/N L = Length of column, N = No. of theoretical plate HPLC method development: The wide variety of equipment, columns, eluent and operational parameters involved makes high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method development seem complex. The main objective of method development is to obtain a good separation with minimum time and effort. Based on the goal of separation, the method development is preceded. The steps involved are: Information on sample, define separation goals Need for special HPLC procedure, sample pretreatment, etc. Choose detector and detector settings Choose LC method, preliminary run; Estimate best separation conditions Optimize separation conditions Check for problems or requirement for special procedure Validation for release to routine laboratory The following must be considered when developing an HPLC method: Keep it simple Try the most common columns and stationary phases first Thoroughly investigate binary mobile phases before going on to ternary Think of the factors that are likely to be significant in achieving the desired resolution. Mobile phase composition, for example, is the most powerful way of optimizing selectivity whereas temperature has a minor effect and would only achieve small selectivity changes. pH will only significantly affect the retention of weak acids and bases. VALIDATION OF ANALYTICAL METHOD IN PHARMACEUTICAL ANALYSIS: Validation is documented evidence, which is completed to ensure that an analytical method is accurate, reproducible and robust over the specific range. The quality of the analytical data is a key factor in the success of a drug development program. The process of method development and validation has a direct impact on the quality of these data. Method validation: Method validation is the process to confirm that analytical procedure employed for a specific test is suitable for its intended use. Method needs to be validated or revalidated Before their introduction into routine use Whenever the conditions changes for which the method has been validated , e.g., instrument with different characteristics Whenever the method is changed, and the change is outside the original scope of the method. Depending on the use of the assay, different parameters will have to be measured during the assay validation. ICH and several regulatory bodies and Pharmacopoeia have published information on the validation of analytical procedures METHOD VALIDATION PARAMETERS: SPECIFICITY. ACCURACY. PRECISION. LINEARITY. ROBUSTNESS. SOLUTION STABILITY. The goal of the validation process is to challenge the method and determine the limit of allowed variability for the conditions needed to run the method. The following statistical parameters are to be determined to validate the developed method. Correlation coefficient(r): When the changes in one variable are associated or followed by changes in the other, it is called correlation. The numerical measure of correlation is called the coefficient of correlation and is defined by the relation. à ¯Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å" (x x) (y -y) r = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ à ¯Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å"(x -x) 2 à ¯Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å"(y -y Regression equation: Regression equation= I + aC Y2 Y1 a = slope = X2 X1 I = Intercept = regression a C As a percentage of mean absorbance. 3. Standard Deviation: S = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ à ¯Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å" (X- X!) 2/N 1 Where, X = observed values X! = Arithmetic mean = à ¯Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å"X/N N = Number of deviations For practical interpretation it is more convenient to express S in terms of percent of the approximate average of the range of analysis is used in the calculation of S. This is called co-efficient of variation (C.V) or percent relative standard deviation (%RSD). C.V OR %RSD = 100* S/ X! Criteria for Validation of the Method CHARACTERISTICS ACCEPTABLE RANGE Specificity No Interference Accuracy Recovery (98-102%) Precision RSD Linearity Correlation Coefficient(r)>0.99 Range 80-120% Stability >24h or >12h DRUG PROFILE RIZATRIPTAN BENZOATE: Structure: Chemical name : N,N diethyl -5-(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-1-ylmetyl)-1H Indole-3 Ethanamine monobenzoate Molecular Formula : C15H19N5.C6H5COOH Molecular weight : 391.47 Description: White crystalline powder Melting point: 178-1800C Solubility: Sparingly soluble in water and methanol Storage: Air tight container protect from light. Drug Category: Anti migraine drug THERAPEUTIC RATIONAL RIZATRIPTAN BENZOATE: CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY: Mechanism of action: Rizatriptan binds with high affinity to human 5-HTIB and 5-HTID receptors leading to cranial blood vessel constriction. Pharmacokinetics: Absorption: Completely absorbed from GI tract, absolute bioavailability is 45% plasma peak concentration attained with in 1-1.5 hours (conventional tablet )or 1.6-2.5 hours (orally disintegrating tablet)after oral administration. Distribution: Crosses placenta and is distributed in to milk in animal, no studies in pregnant or nursing women. Metabolism: Metabolized principally via oxidative deamination by Mao-A to an inactive indole acetic acid metabolite Elimination: Excreted principally in urine(14% of dose as unchanged drug and 51 % a indole acetic acid metabolite Adverse effects: Dry mouth Dizziness Pain tightness/pressure in neck/throat/jaw. Nausea Chest pain Parasthesia Fatigue Dosage and administration: The dose range of Rizatriptan benzoate is 10-30mg orally once daily.Rizatriptan benzoate can be administer orally disintegrating tablet with out meals. LITERATURE REVIEW Sasmitha Kumar et al: has been developed UV spectroscopic method for estimation of Rizatriptan benzoate.The drug shows maximum absorption at 277 nm and 281 nm and obeys beer-lamberts law in the concentration of 0.5-20  µg/ml at 277 nm and 0.5-80  µg/ml at 281 nm respectively. The percentage recovery was found to be 97-100%. Madhukar et al; has been developed reverse phase high performance liquid chromatographic method for determination of Rizatriptan benzoate. The proposed method utilized column L1 inertsil ODS-3v, 250 nmx4.6 mm having particle size, 5 µm. The mobile phases were comprised of A, B of Acetonitrile and buffer pH 6.5 at UV detection 225 nm.The method shows recovery 96.64-97.71 Sachin jagthap et al; has been developed stability indicating reversed phase high performance liquid chromatographic method for the determination of Rizatriptan benzoate in bulk powder and in pharmaceutical formulations. The method utilizes c18 column having dimension 250mmx4.6 mm having particle size,5.0  µm using a mobile phase 0.01M sodium dihydrogen phosphate buffer: Methanol , at a flow rate 1ml/min at ambient temperature and detected at 225 nm.and the method was validated according to ICH guidelines Quizi zhang et al: has been developed, a high performance liquid chromatographic method for the determination of Rizatriptan benzoate in human plasma.using asingle step liqid liqid extraction with metyl tertiary butyl ether, the analytes separated usig amobile phase consisting of 0.05%v/v triehylamine in water adjusting ph 2.75 with 85% phosphoric acid and acetonitrile.fluroscence detection was performed at an excitation wavelength of 225 nm and an emission wavelength of 360 nm.The linearity for rizatriptan was within the concentration range of 0.5-50ng/ml. Rajendra Kumar et al: has been developed and validated stability a stability indicating high performance liquid chromatographic method for Rizatriptan benzoate.The force degradation studies were performed on bulk sample of Rizatriptan benzoate. The method utilizes a zorbax SB-CN column with dimension of 250 mmx4.6 mm, 5um column. The mobile phase consists of a mixture of aqueous potassium dihydrogen ortho phosphate (ph3.4), acetonitrile and methanol. Rauza bagh et al: has been developed a spectroscopic method for analysis of Rizatriptan benzoate in bulk and tablet dosage form. The Rizatriptan benzoate shows maximum absorbance at 225 nm. Beers law was obeyed in the concentration range of 1-10 µg/ml. AIM AND PLAN OF WORK The present aim is to develop a new simple and rapid analytical method to estimate the Rizatriptan benzoate The plan of the proposed work includes the following steps: To undertake solubility studies for analytical studies of Rosuvastatin calcium Develop initial chromatographic conditions. Setting up of initial chromatographic conditions for the assay of Rosuvastatin calcium Optimization of initial chromatographic conditions. Validation of the developed HPLC Analytical method according to ICH method validation parameters. EXPERIMENTAL NEW RP-HPLC METHOD FOR THE ESTIMATION OF RIZATRIPTAN BENZOATE IN TABLET DOSAGE FORM A simple reverse phase HPLC methods was developed for the determination of Rizatriptan benzoate in tablet dosage form. Zorbax Eclipse XBD C18 (250 cm ÃÆ'- 4.6 mm) column in isocratic mode with mobile phase Buffer ph 5.0: Methanol (80:20) was used and pH-3 adjusted with tri ethylamine. The flow rate was 1.0 ml/min and UV detection at 225nm. The retention time 3.0 min. The proposed method was also validated. EXPERIMENTAL 1. Instrumentation: Shimadzu LC-10A HPLC Vacuum pump Gelmon science Elico SL-164 double beam UV-Visible spectrophotometer Ultra sonicator 3.5L 100(pci) 2. Chemicals: Water HPLC grade Methanol HPLC grade (Merck) Potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate(AR Grade) Triethylamine (AR Grade) 5.1 OPTIMIZATION: 1. Selection of wavelength: After solubility study for the drug solvent was selected and appropriate concentration of Rizatriptan benzoate standards with solvent were prepared. The solution were then scanned by using doubl beam UV-Visible spectrophotometer the range between 200-400nm.The overlain spectra for the both drug were observed and maximum wavelength was finally selected. 2. Selection of mobile phase: To develop a prà ©cised and robust HPLC method for determination of Rizatriptan benzoate , its standard solution were injected in the HPLC system. After literature survey and solubility data different composition of mobile phase of different flow rates were employed in order to determine the best condition for effective separation of drugs. 3. Selection of column: Initially different C8 and C18 columns were tried for selected composition of mobile phase and quality of peaks were observed for the drugs. Finally the column was fixed upon the satisfactory results of various system suitability parameters such as column efficiency, retention time, tailing factor / peak asymmetry of the peaks. Other parameters such as flow rate, column temperature etc. were selected by varying its value up to certain levels and results were observed. The value at satisfactory results were obtained has been selected for the method. The final selection of chromatographic conditions as follows Optimized chromatographic conditions Preparation of Buffer ph 5.0: Dissove 2.76 gm of potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate in 1000ml of HPLC water plus 5.0 mlof Triethylamine. Mix and adjust PH 5.0 with orthophosporic acid. Filter with 0.45u nylon filter. Preparation of mobile phase: The mobile phase was prepared by mixing Buffer: Methanol (80:20). the solution was then filtered through 0.45ÃŽÂ ¼m membrane filter and sonicated. Preparation of standard stock solution: Standard solution of the pure drug was prepared by dissolving 73.0 mg of Rizatriptan benzoate in 100ml volumetric flask. The drugs were dissolved by using mobile phase as a diluent. Add about 50ml of diluent and sonicate to dissolve. Make up the volume with diluent. Mix well. Further dilute 5.0ml of the above solution to 250ml with diluent, mix well. Preparation of sample solution: Weight and transfer 10 intact tablet in into a100ml volumetric flask. Add about 50ml of diluent and sonicate for 15 min and make up the volume with diluent. Mix well, filter through 25 mm 0.45 u nylon , discard 4ml filtrate. Further dilute 5ml of the solution to 250 ml with diluent and mix well. CONCLUSION The evaluation of obtained values suggests that the proposed HPLC methods provide simple, precise, rapid and robust quantitative analytical method for determination of Rizatriptan benzoate in tablet dosage form. The mobile phase is simple to prepare and economical. After validating proposed method as per ICH guidelines and correlating obtained values with the standard values, satisfactory results were obtained. Hence, the method can be easily and conveniently adopted for routine estimation of Rizatriptan benzoate in tablet dosage form.

Malcolm X Essay example -- Civil Rights Movement

Malcolm X The fifties and sixties were a crazy time to live; riots were happening, many Civil Rights Movement leaders were speaking in the streets, and student sit-ins were held. Many radical activists were preaching their thoughts on racism and things needed for equality. Some people felt it necessary to turn the other cheek to violence while others claimed it to be a right to defend themselves. The major figures in the Civil Rights Movement had their own opinions on how to equalize society. Martin Luther King, Jr. felt that a peaceful movement was the best route to freedom. I discovered after much research that famous African American figures tended to side with Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad on the best approach. Rosa Parks, Maya Angelou and James Baldwin fall under this category. They did not by any means agree completely, but had many views in common with the Islam thinkers. Malcolm X was not a pro-violence leader, but encouraged it when necessary for self-defense and protecting loved ones as Jenkins reported, â€Å"Malcolm X encouraged blacks to take a stand against their white oppressors if they were physically threatened,† (Jenkins 267). This was Malcolm’s motto when asked how blacks should fight the â€Å"white man†. James Baldwin does not share this idea even though he does admire many of Malcolm X†s thoughts. Malcolm and Baldwin strongly believe that history is an important part of knowledge and is necessary to live a prosperous life. I am going to explain more about the Malcolm X that many admire and respect. While he was a child he received the best grades in an all white school and was even class president once. His aspiration was to be a lawyer, but his favorite teacher had told him that he could not keep dreaming unrea... ...ill existed. One can only put up with so much before he starts to develop hate right back. I do not endorse this thinking, but can understand where Malcolm is coming from when he admits this. Works Cited Baldwin, James. â€Å"Down at the Cross.† 1995. James Baldwin: Collected Essays. Ed. Toni Morrison. New York: Library of America, 1998. 296-347 Baldwin, James. â€Å"White Man’s Guilt.† 1995. James Baldwin: Collected Essays. Ed. Toni Morrison. New York: Library of America, 1998. 722-727 Clark, Michael. â€Å"Rise in Racial Extremism Worries Harlem Leaders.† New York Times 25 Jan. 1960:1. Jenkins, Robert. The Malcolm X Encyclopedia. Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2002 Malcolm X. â€Å"Black Man’s History† speech. Abdul, Alkalimat, ed., Maclolm X: A Research Site (launched May 19,1999 : University of Toledo and Twenty- first Century Books). http://www.brothermalcolm.net. Malcolm X Essay example -- Civil Rights Movement Malcolm X The fifties and sixties were a crazy time to live; riots were happening, many Civil Rights Movement leaders were speaking in the streets, and student sit-ins were held. Many radical activists were preaching their thoughts on racism and things needed for equality. Some people felt it necessary to turn the other cheek to violence while others claimed it to be a right to defend themselves. The major figures in the Civil Rights Movement had their own opinions on how to equalize society. Martin Luther King, Jr. felt that a peaceful movement was the best route to freedom. I discovered after much research that famous African American figures tended to side with Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad on the best approach. Rosa Parks, Maya Angelou and James Baldwin fall under this category. They did not by any means agree completely, but had many views in common with the Islam thinkers. Malcolm X was not a pro-violence leader, but encouraged it when necessary for self-defense and protecting loved ones as Jenkins reported, â€Å"Malcolm X encouraged blacks to take a stand against their white oppressors if they were physically threatened,† (Jenkins 267). This was Malcolm’s motto when asked how blacks should fight the â€Å"white man†. James Baldwin does not share this idea even though he does admire many of Malcolm X†s thoughts. Malcolm and Baldwin strongly believe that history is an important part of knowledge and is necessary to live a prosperous life. I am going to explain more about the Malcolm X that many admire and respect. While he was a child he received the best grades in an all white school and was even class president once. His aspiration was to be a lawyer, but his favorite teacher had told him that he could not keep dreaming unrea... ...ill existed. One can only put up with so much before he starts to develop hate right back. I do not endorse this thinking, but can understand where Malcolm is coming from when he admits this. Works Cited Baldwin, James. â€Å"Down at the Cross.† 1995. James Baldwin: Collected Essays. Ed. Toni Morrison. New York: Library of America, 1998. 296-347 Baldwin, James. â€Å"White Man’s Guilt.† 1995. James Baldwin: Collected Essays. Ed. Toni Morrison. New York: Library of America, 1998. 722-727 Clark, Michael. â€Å"Rise in Racial Extremism Worries Harlem Leaders.† New York Times 25 Jan. 1960:1. Jenkins, Robert. The Malcolm X Encyclopedia. Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2002 Malcolm X. â€Å"Black Man’s History† speech. Abdul, Alkalimat, ed., Maclolm X: A Research Site (launched May 19,1999 : University of Toledo and Twenty- first Century Books). http://www.brothermalcolm.net.

Social Evils in Pakistan Essay Types and Causes

The social evils are one of the most brutal and biggest curses to any nation which plays the vital role in the destruction of the society in any state or country. Pakistan is amongst one of those countries which are facing various disparaging social evils which have affected the law and order, national harmony and the peace of the country. Let us have the overview on the various types of social evils in Pakistan and what are the main reasons which have contributed in making these social evils from bad to worse.One of the most critical social evil in Pakistan is corruption as unfortunately Pakistan is in the list of the top countries having mighty huge corruption in the system and the establishment. Corruption has strengthened its roots not only in the government organizations but at the same time private sector is also victim of this social evil, due to which the justice and equality has dispersed from the country as people can do anything with the help of the power of money at any l evel. The main cause for this social evil is greed for money and power and at the same time unfair and unpatriotic intentions not only of the officials but also including the government officials and politicians.Terrorism is also a very significant social evil in Pakistan which has not only just affected the law and order situation but with the passage of time has a very huge adverse impact on the national economy of the state. Due to the terrorism activities the international investment has disappeared from the state leaving Pakistan all on its own or on the international loans. The basic reason behind this is the religious extremism and the hate against the government of the state.Pakistan is being ranked as one of those countries which have the highest ratio of Child Labor, which is another very heart breaking social evil in which the innocence of the children are being exploited. The basic reason for such high child labor ratio in Pakistan is due to unemployment and majority of the people living below the poverty line.The families which cannot afford to send their children to acquire expensive education are forced to send their children to workshops, restaurants, and municipal corporation for working which is against the labor laws of the country but due to the need and urge for money they are forced to do so.Sexual harassment is also considered to be a very destructive social evil in Pakistan where the children and females are being made victims of sexual harassment by the evil and inhuman peoples of the state. The main reason behind this curse is the sexual urge of uneducated people, frustration and the fire of revenge results in the occurrence of such brutal and immoral activities in Pakistan.

Drugs and Alcohol Essay

Drugs and Alcohol Essay Probably the biggest problem of modern society lies in the drugs and alcohol problem. Every day drugs and alcohol issues become more and more important and crucial. As a part of the school, high school, college or university education – students are supposed to write a paper on alcohol and drugs. It can be drugs and alcohol essay, as well as drugs and alcohol research paper or a drugs and alcohol term paper. In this academic paper a student is supposed to express his own opinion on this problem and propose some methods how to resolve this issue. In order to be able to write an outstanding drugs and alcohol paper – a student has to make a research on the topic, and possess great information on the influence of drugs and alcohol on a human, as well as know simple anatomical and physiological effects of drugs and alcohol. But even if he is able to collect multiple facts of drugs and alcohol and their effect on a human – it still has to be combined with great writing skills, in order to be able to form a good, interesting, intriguing and well balanced text of the drugs and alcohol essay, term paper, research paper, thesis or dissertation. The paper should start from the introduction section, where the student has to express his personal opinion, which needs to be proven afterwards. The main point can not be obvious, as if it will – the paper will lose its point. You have to convince your reader that the solution you will propose later is the most optimum and sufficient. The hardest part of writing a drugs and alcohol essay paper – is convincing the reader of your knowledge and field of expertise. You have to show your confidence in this point, and make sure that the reader will understand and consider your opinion on this matter. CustomWritings.com will gladly help you write your custom drugs and alcohol paper, and make sure every trouble of this paper is resolved, and all you will have to do is write your name on the paper and turn it in to your professor.

Free Essays on Andrew Carnegie

One of the captains of industry of 19th century America, Andrew Carnegie helped build the formidable American steel industry, a process that turned a poor young man into one of the richest entrepreneurs of his age. Later in his life, Carnegie sold his steel business and systematically gave his collected fortune away to cultural, educational and scientific institutions for "the improvement of mankind." Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, the medieval capital of Scotland, in 1835. The town was a center of the linen industry, and Andrew's father was a weaver, a profession the young Carnegie was expected to follow. But the industrial revolution that would later make Carnegie the richest man in the world, destroyed the weavers' craft. When the steam- powered looms came to Dunfermline in 1847 hundreds of hand loom weavers became expendable. Andrew's mother went to work to support the family, opening a small grocery shop and mending shoes. "I began to learn what poverty meant," Andrew would later write. "It was burnt into my heart then that my father had to beg for work. And then and there came the resolve that I would cure that when I got to be a man." An ambition for riches would mark Carnegie's path in life. However, a belief in political egalitarianism was another ambition he inherited from his family. Andrew's father, his grandfather Tom Morrison and his uncle Tom Jr. were all Scottish radicals who fought to do away with inherited privilege and to bring about the rights of common workers. But Andrew's mother, fearing for the survival of her family, pushed the family to leave the poverty of Scotland for the possibilities in America. She borrowed 20 pounds she needed to pay the fare for the Atlantic passage and in 1848 the Carnegies joined two of Margaret's sisters in Pittsburgh, then a sooty city that was the iron-manufacturing center of the country. William Carnegie secured work in a cott... Free Essays on Andrew Carnegie Free Essays on Andrew Carnegie The Gilded Age and Andrew Carnegie The Gilded age was a time of industrialization, a time where certain entrepreneurs became filthy rich. For the first time Americans had sewing machines, phonographs, skyscrapers, and even electric lights, yet most people labored in the shadow of poverty .Andrew Carnegie was and is still considered one of the greatest entrepreneurs of all times. He is the equivalent of today’s Bill Gates. Although he was known for making ruthless business trades he built an empire so strong, it made him the richest person in the World. Carnegie was born in Dunfermline Scotland in 1835. His father was a handloom weaver and decided to move his family to the United States in 1848 to join his other relatives that had already settled in Pittsburg . Things weren’t always easy for young Andrew. Like all Entrepreneurs Carnegie started off working in a cotton mill as a bobbin boy then worked his way up to telegrapher. It wasn’t long before Carnegie moved up again, this time he worked as Thomas Scott’s first assistant to the Pennsylvania Railroad . Carnegie eventually became superintendent of the Pennsylvania railroad in 1859 . For the next six years he worked on improving the railroad systems. It wasn’t until 1865 when Carnegie resigned from the Pennsylvania railroad system in order to concentrate on some of his personal investments with the steel industry. At this point Carnegie realized America’s need for Steel and jumped at the opportunity. In 1865 he founded the Keystone Bridge, Co which made iron and steel . This made Carnegie a very wealthy man. I think the jump he made from the Railroads to the steel industry was the most influential part of his entire life. It is said that Carnegies success in the steel industry primarily came because surround himself with smart men, he invested in new equipment, and he owned most of his stock so he didn’t have to answer to anyone buy himself . By 1900 Carnegi... Free Essays on Andrew Carnegie One of the captains of industry of 19th century America, Andrew Carnegie helped build the formidable American steel industry, a process that turned a poor young man into one of the richest entrepreneurs of his age. Later in his life, Carnegie sold his steel business and systematically gave his collected fortune away to cultural, educational and scientific institutions for "the improvement of mankind." Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, the medieval capital of Scotland, in 1835. The town was a center of the linen industry, and Andrew's father was a weaver, a profession the young Carnegie was expected to follow. But the industrial revolution that would later make Carnegie the richest man in the world, destroyed the weavers' craft. When the steam- powered looms came to Dunfermline in 1847 hundreds of hand loom weavers became expendable. Andrew's mother went to work to support the family, opening a small grocery shop and mending shoes. "I began to learn what poverty meant," Andrew would later write. "It was burnt into my heart then that my father had to beg for work. And then and there came the resolve that I would cure that when I got to be a man." An ambition for riches would mark Carnegie's path in life. However, a belief in political egalitarianism was another ambition he inherited from his family. Andrew's father, his grandfather Tom Morrison and his uncle Tom Jr. were all Scottish radicals who fought to do away with inherited privilege and to bring about the rights of common workers. But Andrew's mother, fearing for the survival of her family, pushed the family to leave the poverty of Scotland for the possibilities in America. She borrowed 20 pounds she needed to pay the fare for the Atlantic passage and in 1848 the Carnegies joined two of Margaret's sisters in Pittsburgh, then a sooty city that was the iron-manufacturing center of the country. William Carnegie secured work in a cott...

GLOBUS ENTERPRISES YEAR END BALANCES Assignment

GLOBUS ENTERPRISES YEAR END BALANCES - Assignment Example $81,200 and it is believed that it should be allotted either in attractive investments or transferred to retained profit account. The current ratio of 2.37 shows that the company has sufficient funds for fulfilling its liabilities and it should consider about decreasing the amount of current assets to a significant level so that there is proper balance between the assets and liabilities of short term period within the organization. This balance between the assets and liabilities would prove to be useful for the business in the long term and allow the organization to gain competitive advantage. The net working capital is an important indicator about the proper allocation of a company’s current assets and it is used to review the financial health of the company for one year. Considering the working capital of Globus Enterprises which is $86,800, it is a clear sign of the organization that it is in effective utilization of the company’s resources. It shows that the company has a positive working capital and has appropriate amount of liquid cash to meet the immediate monetary requirements of the business. Positive working capital for the business is a highly advantageous position for the business. Businesses require capital for expansion and other investments and positive working capital would assist the business in accomplishing such goals. It has to make sure that its working capital ratio is grown in an upward direction in upcoming years so that it does not have to face any sort of financial problem and it can smoothly run its business operations. The figure also ensures that it is able to pay off its current liabilities without any difficulty and it can even bear any expense required for the prepayments with convenience. Globus Enterprises has debt to equity ratio of 1.1 which is a good sign of the company’s internal health. For every organization, the ideal ratio is in between 1-2 and the company’s figure

Strengths and limitations of assessment methods Essay

Strengths and limitations of assessment methods - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that different assessment methods can be more or less effective in assessing the different skills, attitudes, and knowledge of your students. A teacher would probably set up a practical activity and have learners demonstrate their skills for assessment. Some learners are not, however, as confident as others demonstrating practical skills and need more time to observe others or to practice these skills in a less formal setting. Practical assessments, such as demonstrations, presentations, and simulations can be limited with regards to assessing learners’ theoretical understanding of a subject. Group discussions can engage and motivate the majority of students but some learners might feel left out. Multiple-choice exams provide opportunities for learners to receive immediate feedback and results but do not provide them with opportunities to elaborate on concepts. Essays, on the other hand, provide learners with opportunities to explore their ideas and elaborate on concepts relating to the subject but are difficult to assess. Some assessment methods, like role-plays, can be â€Å"holistic† and help you assess the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of your learners but some learners can be inhibited by their nerves. Given the above strengths and weaknesses of different assessment methods, it is important for an instructor or a teacher to consider individual learner needs. For instance, it is essential that any initial assessment procedure is done in the context of recognizing a learner’s aspirations as well as learning goals.